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Shlomo
Sand, The Arabs' Darling
by Shaul Bartal
Middle East Quarterly
Winter 2015 (view PDF)
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Sand's
claim—that Jews never existed as a national group with a common origin
in the Land of Israel/Palestine—has been disproved by scores of
historical writings and archaeological discoveries. In 2008,
archaeologists from the Hebrew University found five lines of text
written in black ink on a shard of pottery dug up at Elah Fortress, or
Khirbet Qeiyafa, in Israel. Carbon dating of artifacts found at the
site indicates the Hebrew inscription was written about 3,000 years
ago, predating the Dead Sea Scrolls by 1,000 years.
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Jewish Israeli researchers whose books and writings achieve great
appreciation among Arab communities in the Middle East are few and far
between. Shlomo Sand is the exception. Since the initial publication of The
Invention of the Jewish People five years ago,[1] every interview with the Tel
Aviv University historian has achieved great popularity in Arab media.
Headlines refer to his name endlessly though his theories are anything
but new and have long been popular in the Arab world, just as The
Protocols of the Elders of Zion and Mein Kampf have been
widely distributed in the Arab language for many years.[2] In essence, Sand's book has
become a plank of Palestinian and Arab propaganda, the purpose of which
is to undermine the right of the Jewish people to its ancestral homeland.
Old-New
Denial
According to Sand's "revolutionary" theory, throughout
history the Jews were never one common nation but rather a mixture of
different races that happen to share one faith. In his opinion, the biblical
stories are amazing and interesting, but at the same time, historically
inaccurate. The Bible is a literary creation, "a historical
myth" written in the sixth century B.C.E., that shaped the world of
the Jewish communities, who received Judaism from many different sources.
But the Jews never returned to their land because they were never
actually exiled from it. As a result, modern Zionist history developed a
racial theory of Jewish unity, a national Jewish myth of exile and return
that did not exist earlier. This myth was primarily created to enable the
expulsion of the indigenous Palestinian population that may actually have
originated in the ancient kingdom of Judah.[3]
It is an argument that runs against the entirety of legitimate
scholarship on Jewish history, and Sand's specific claims have been
disproved by scores of historical writings and archaeological
discoveries. Since Sand published his book, many distinguished historians
have disagreed with him, including Israel Bartal who published a powerful
response.[4]
Similarly, Dov Ben-Meir's book, Exile and Redemption of the Jewish
People, is also a pointed and well-researched
refutation of Sand's theory.[5]
Furthermore, it has been shown that Sand's ideas regarding race theory
are borrowed from Nazi, Islamic, Arab, and Palestinian sources that
claimed to have scientifically proven that the Jews of today do not
descend from ancient Israel stock.[6]
One example is a book by the Islamic activist Hassan Bash, at-Tarbiya
as-Sahyonia, Min Ansariyat at-Torah ila Damu'ya al-Ihtilal (Zionist
Education, from the Racism of the Torah to the Bloodletting of the
Occupation).[7]
Born in 1947 in Haifa, Bash and his family fled during the 1948 war to
Syria where he received his teaching certificate in Arabic at the
University of Damascus in 1973, completed a doctorate in religious
studies, and worked in journalism. Bash is considered a leading
researcher of Zionist culture and Jewish religion and has written
thirty-two books, most of which slander the Jewish religion, the Torah,
and Christianity. His primary conclusions are that
- Palestine is
Canaanite Arab land originating from 3,000 B.C.E. with the Jews
arriving there in flocks from the start of 1,200 B.C.E.
- The Jews, who
founded Zionism, do not have roots among the ancient Hebrew peoples,
which are distinct. The new Jewish people of today are descendants
of the Khazar Aryan people and do not belong to the Semitic race.
- An in-depth review
of the Jews shows that they are not associated with only one race
but rather comprise seventeen races, all of which have common
communal traditions.[8]
Sand's book became a major
best-seller in the Arab world and is treasured by Palestinians.
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The first edition of Bash's book was published at least five years
prior to Sand's book. Bash also analyzes what he calls "Zionist
incitement literature," which he claims is based on the belief in an
imaginary Jewish past. This literature allegedly teaches violence and
aims at justifying the theft of Palestine from the Palestinian people,
who are "descendant of the ancient Canaanite Arab and Amalekite
people and of others who lived in this country since the beginning of
time."[9]
This is precisely Sand's conclusion of several years later.
The unique aspect of Sand's book thus is not its content but rather
its context. Sand's innovation is that he, a Jewish professor of history
from a leading "Zionist" university, step-by-step, in
beautifully phrased Hebrew, justifies and approves all
the Palestinian historical claims. It is no surprise that The
Invention of the Jewish People became a major best-seller in the Arab
world and is treasured by Palestinians.
The Damage
from Sand's Book
The damage caused by The Invention stems from its
misrepresentation of established historical facts as lies. Leon Hadar, in
an analysis review, summarizes the point well:
Countering official Zionist
historiography, Sand questions whether the Jewish people ever existed as
a national group with a common origin in the Land of Israel/Palestine. He
concludes that the Jews should be seen as a religious community
comprising a mishmash of individuals and groups that had converted to the
ancient monotheistic religion but do not have any historical right to
establish an independent Jewish state in the Holy Land. In short, the
Jewish People, according to Sand, are not really a "people" in
the sense of having a common ethnic origin and national heritage. They
certainly do not have a political claim over the territory that today
constitutes Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories, including
Jerusalem.[10]
So the Jews as a nation have no real historical claim to the territory
of the State of Israel, including Jerusalem. That this ignores millennia
of Jewish theological focus on the ideas of return and the place of
Jerusalem is obvious. Among other things, the mysterious Jewish blessing
said by Jews for thousands of years, "And to Jerusalem Your city,
may You return in compassion and may You rest within it, as You have
spoken. May You rebuild it soon in our days as an eternal structure and
may You speedily establish the throne of David within it,"[11] must be regarded as irrelevant
or anachronistic. The Jewish people, according to Sand, were never exiled
and—in distinction to Zionists—the majority of Jews have adopted this
myth for no reason.[12]
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In
France, as in many other countries, Sand (above, right) received praise
for the book and even won a prize in 2009 from the French press. More
than 25,000 copies of Sand's book were sold in France, and it topped
the best-seller lists for seven weeks in a row. Not one of the reviews
bothered to address the book's countless flaws exposed by academics in
Israel and elsewhere.
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It should be emphasized that in the past Jewish rights to a national
homeland flowed from widespread appreciation of history and were recognized
without any hesitation. For example, at the Peace Conference in Paris
after World War I, U.S. intelligence officials made a recommendation to
President Woodrow Wilson: "It will be the policy of the League of
Nations to recognize Palestine as a Jewish state as soon as it is a
Jewish state in fact. It is right that Palestine should become a Jewish
state, if the Jews being given the full opportunity, make it such."
This historical and moral claim was endorsed by world powers in the
Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923.[13]
Contrary to Sand's opinion, the Jewish nation has been recognized not
only by Europeans but also by Arabs. Testimony for this is the
best-seller Ma'arakatuna ma al-Yahud (Our War against the Jews) by
Sayyid Qutb, the eminent Muslim Brotherhood ideologue central to modern
Islamist thought. In his book, Qutb described the struggle against the
Jews throughout the ages and the obligation to carry out war against
them. He also recognized Jews as a nation with a special tie to Palestine
that he hoped would be destroyed.[14]
But Sand's ahistorical, indeed, antihistorical, presentation is
powerfully attractive.
Sand's conclusions are directly
related to his political stand as an ex-activist of the Israeli
communist Rakah party.
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In France, as in many other countries, Sand received praise for the
book and even won the "Prix Aujourd'hui" in 2009 from the
French press.[15]
In France alone, more than 25,000 copies of Sand's book were sold, and it
topped the best-seller lists for seven weeks in a row. Not one of the
reviews bothered to address the book's countless flaws exposed by
academics in Israel and elsewhere. These showed, among other problems,
that Sand used sources erroneously, took material out of context, and in
fact, totally adopted the Palestinian narrative of a Jewish ethnic
cleansing carried out in the name of an imagined ideology.[16] In the words of Anita Shapira
of Tel Aviv University, "Reconciliation between peoples makes
necessary a mutual recognition of truth, not an artificial analysis that
presents a fabricated front."[17] Sand's narrative resonated in
France because it is, in effect, strongly pro-Palestinian.
Sand's
Palestinian Communist Connection
In Maher Sharif's editorial, "Shlomo Sand and the Invention of
the Jewish People,"[18]
the author, a member of the Palestinian
People's Party, the reincarnation of the Israeli communist Rakah
party, praised Sand's creation, specifically the French version entitled How
the Jewish Nation Was Invented, from the Torah to Zionism. The Rakah
context is vital. Sand's conclusions are directly related to his
political stand as an ex-Rakah activist, his familial background, and his
connections and friendship with the famous Palestinian poet Mahmoud
Darwish. Darwish was also a Rakah activist until he left Israel in 1970
and joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Lebanon.[19]
Fatah, the PLO's largest
constituent organization, continues to support Sand's research.
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Sharif noted that he learned of Sand's book in May 2009 when, during a
conference in Rome, he was given the book's French edition, dedicated to
Bassel Natasha and to "Palestinians and Jews who wanted to live in
liberty, equality, and brotherhood." (The Hebrew edition was
dedicated to Sand's "daughters Edith and Liel and all children of
their generation who yearned for equality.") Sharif's review began
with Sand's personal story, beginning with his Yiddish-speaking family
and its immigration to Israel. Sharif emphasized that "even then,
the young man Shlomo felt that he was sitting on lands that were taken
from another people."[20]
With great appreciation, Sharif analyzed each chapter in the book and
agreed with Sand's historical analysis. Sand's conclusions are not new
and are accepted in every branch and form of the communist movement, both
in Israel and the territories. So, Sand's book is, in effect, a product
of the communist Rakah party.
Reaction in
the Arab and Palestinian Press
A wide-ranging article on Sand was published in the al-Quds
newspaper, the most widely read East Jerusalem newspaper in Palestinian
society. The title of the article speaks for itself: "The Israeli
historian Shlomo Sand: The 'Jewish people' is such an extensive figment
of imagination that even the act of return was invented retroactively,
and the 'myth' was created based upon which the State of Israel was
founded."[21]
The article dealt with a conference held in Brussels during which Sand
presented his main conclusions and in which Arab intellectuals and
Europeans participated. Sand explained to the reporter that he did not
accept the theory that the Jewish people was exiled from its land and
sent into captivity. But to his dismay, he could find no book that told
the truth regarding the origins of the Jewish people. The newspaper
quotes Sand as saying that "there is a greater possibility that the
Hamas fighters are the descendants of King David than the possibility
that he [Shlomo Sand] could be the descendant of David."[22] Sand emphasized that "the
state of Israel was founded through exploitation of its original
residents in 1948 … Zionism does not try to hide this."[23]
The conference participants and Lebanese author Elias Huri, who called
Sand his "friend," complimented the Israeli professor for his
brave position. Huri even stated that "we turn to all participants
and to all those who believe in justice and in the rights of the
Palestinian people for self-determination to participate in the fight
against the Zionists … Sand's book calls for action for the Palestinian
people."[24]
During the conference, calls to boycott Israel were frequent as were
voices against maintaining normal relationships with the Jewish state.
Huri noted that the Association of Lebanese Authors first thought that it
should prevent the distribution of the book because it was written by an
Israeli professor. However, parties responsible for censorship had not
read the book, and the decision was later reversed. At the end of the
conference, Sand was quoted as saying that today there is "an
Israeli people" comprising Jews and Arabs and based on Israeli
language and literature. The only solution to the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict, in his view, was the establishment of one nation in which
Israelis and Palestinians would live together. But Sand added that he was
pessimistic about this possibility, an assessment he had made previously.[25]
Sand's perceptions continue to cause waves across the Arab world. For
example, the popular Egyptian newspaper, ash-Shuruk al-Jadid,
published an article, "Shlomo Sand: There is no such thing as the
Jewish people,"[26]
as part of a series that examined the "institutional myths" of
the Israeli government. The author focused on two issues—the illusion of
the Chosen Jewish People and the illusion of the Promised Land—that have
(allegedly) been marketed by the Zionists as historical justification for
the foundation of the "Zionist entity" on Palestinian land.[27]
One Arab media article emphasized
that the awakening to the false Zionist belief comes from within Israel
itself via a Tel Aviv University history professor.
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The article emphasized that the awakening to this false Zionist belief
comes from within Israel itself via an Israeli, a Tel Aviv University
professor of modern history. It focused on Sand's belief undermining the
legitimacy of Zionist claims that Jews today are a mix of different races
and that Palestinians are the dispersed Jewish descendants. The author
added that it took Sand considerable time to publish his book and that he
did so only after receiving his professorship at Tel Aviv University
because this position offered him a kind of academic immunity and the
opportunity to expose the truth of the imagined Jewish people.
Reader reactions were joyful: "This person, Shlomo Sand, is truly
something amazing. I feel pride and truly want to thank him for his book.
He is a true Jew." Other readers commented that "the Jews, and
the whole world know the truth according to
which the Jews have no rights to Palestine, and so why do the Jews
continue living there." One even posed this question to Sand. There
is no doubt that Sand's book perfectly mirrored the opinion of the Arab
community.
Fatah and PA
Praise
Fatah, the PLO's largest constituent organization, has and continues
to support Sand's research. On September 30, 2010, the Palestinian Center
for Israeli Studies advertised the book on Fatah's al-Moukaf
website, informing its readers that a new edition in Arabic had been
published in Amman. The book was translated into literary Arabic by Saaid
Ayash and was edited by As'ad Zu'bi. One reviewer complimented the book
as
one of the most exciting books I've
read … Shlomo Sand began a journey of in-depth research that begins from
thousands of years ago. His final conclusions, which he proves in detail,
are that the Jews, who are living today in Israel and in other places in
the world, have no relationship to and are not the descendants of the
earlier nation that lived in the kingdom of Judah during the period of
the Second Temple … this of course, contradicts the Zionist claim
regarding the return of Israel to its land.[28]
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In
2001, the Palestinian Authority changed its textbooks and removed
historical Jewish references. Rachel's Tomb (above), which had appeared
in Palestinian textbooks as the grave of the mother of the prophet
Joseph and wife of Jacob, became the Bilal Bin Rabah Mosque.
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Quoting from Sand's book at length, the article repeated its claims
regarding the origin of today's Jews as a mixture of different peoples,
emphasizing that Jews were not one race as claimed by "Zionist"
historians during the nineteenth century and beyond. These historians
took advantage of Jewish mythology to create a Jewish nation, which both
exists and does not exist, and developed a racist theory that led to the
Arab expulsion in 1948. It noted that in the preface to the book's Arab
edition, the editor added that Zionist historians should be blamed for
the historical distortion that led to the crimes against the
Palestinians. The Palestinians are, after all, part of one unified Muslim
nation with common roots. The article also repeated praise from Elias
Khuri, Khaled Hroub, and Maher Sharif, all figures who reject the Jewish
nation and a common Jewish heritage.[29]
Dismantling
Jewish History
In Hassan Batal's article "Shlomo Sand, History and
Historiography,"[30]
the author asks: "Why should one believe in the theory of Rachel's
Tomb rather than the Bilal Bin Rabah Mosque? What is the Jewish
connection to the Cave of the Patriarchs?" According to Batal, the
accepted version of Jewish history has recently been criticized in a way
that negates that very history. The first criticism is alleged to come
from the Vatican: The concept of the Promised Land is not related to
Israel but rather to some other place. The second is from the U.N.
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and critiques
the supposedly politically biased perception of Jewish history that
considers the location of the Bilal Bin Rabah Mosque as the location of
Rachel's Tomb. UNESCO also is alleged to negate accepted Jewish history
regarding al-Haram
al-Ibrahimi, or the Cave of the Patriarchs, which appears on an
Israeli list of Jewish heritage sites. Batal is at least partially
correct. In 2001, the Palestinian Authority changed its textbooks by
removing historical Jewish references. Rachel's Tomb, which had appeared
in Palestinian textbooks as the grave of the mother of the prophet Joseph
and wife of Jacob,
became the Bilal Bin Rabah Mosque.[31]
The willingness to let some form
of Israel survive is an important point of contention.
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Sand, added Batal, is not the first to contradict the fundamental
myths upon which the Jewish state was founded. Still, Sand does not
contradict the right of Israel to exist but only calls for Jewish myths
not to be propagated. This willingness to let some form of Israel survive
is an important point of contention.
On this matter, Batal sought Sabri Jiryis's opinion on whether the
"Zionist" author Sand's position can be accepted. Jiryis, an
Israeli Arab born in Fassuta, is considered by the PLO to be an authority
on the origins of Israel. He worked as an advisor for Israeli affairs for
Yasser Arafat and managed the organization's Palestinian Research Center.[32] According to Jiryis,
the state of Israel does indeed exist, but the state of Palestine does
not. What gave Israel its purpose was the relentless repetition of
established myths about the right of return of the Jews to their land
after a long expulsion. The Arab Palestinian people is a prisoner of
these Israeli myths. Sand's book, therefore, has importance for burying
those myths and offering Palestinians their rights to independence and to
a state… Sand may not have discovered anything new, but he has renewed
the old.[33]
Jiryis' nationalistic positions are wellknown as are his views
regarding Jewish history in Israel. His position was detailed in his
book, Tarikh as-Sahyonia (Zionist History), published in
Beirut in 1981.[34]
His views are no different from Sand's. But Jiryis' position as a member
of the PLO, Arafat's advisor, and a Palestinian historian on the origins
of Israel and Zionism, offers a Palestinian halal certification
for Sand's book.
Batal noted that it should be agreed that there is an Israeli nation
and not a Jewish nation, which was born in sin. On the other hand, there
is a Palestinian people with Arab language and culture and deep relations
with the Arab and Muslim worlds. In his opinion, it is obvious who does
and does not have the legitimate rights to found a state in Palestine.[35]
Support for
Hamas Policies
Hamas is defined as a terrorist organization in Israel, the United
States, and the European Union, among other places. The Hamas covenant
completely denies the right of the Jewish people to any part of
Palestine. Palestinian land is waqf—holy land belonging solely to
all generations of Muslims—and no Arab or Muslim party has authority to
let go of any part of Palestine.[36]
As stated in the Hamas covenant,
Initiatives, and so-called peaceful
solutions and international conferences are in contradiction to the
principles of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas). The waiver of any
part of Palestine is intentional excommunication- desecration against
part of the religion and is a serious religious crime.[37]
On Saturday December 27, 2008, Israel's Operation Cast Lead began and
lasted until January 18, 2009. During the war, Hamas won support from
Sand, whose backing was prominently advertised in the Arab world. Sand
criticized the State of Israel, which aimed at preventing Hamas from
threatening Israeli lives and shooting rockets into civilian areas from
the Gaza Strip.
On a Damascus University website, medical student Hakeem Fa'al
published an article titled "A Perspective Worth Discussing, Shlomo
Sand: Is Israel Losing the War?"[38] In his opening comments, Fa'al
notes that he had read many articles about Israeli left-wingers but was
most impressed by Sand's writings. He describes Sand as one of the most
respected professors in Israel. The author also supported Sand's
conclusion that Israel should not be recognized as a Jewish state yet
should be allowed to exist, much like a baby born as the result of rape.
In the article, Sand expressed his position against Israel's war on
Hamas. When asked about the rocket attacks on Israeli citizens, he is
quoted as saying:
It's true; it's not normal that rockets are launched at Israel. But is
it normal that Israel has still not decided what its borders are? This
state, which cannot stand for rockets, is also the same state that is not
willing to declare the borders of 1967. Because Israel has rejected the
initiative of the Arab League from 2002 according to which it would be
fully recognized by the 1967 borders.[39]
Sand claimed that Hamas offered
peace, but Israel rejected the offer because it wanted to continue
murdering Hamas members.
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In other words, Israel was at fault for the situation because it had
not been willing to declare the 1967 borders as final. According to Sand,
Israel's refusal to accept the Arab League plan was enough to deny it the
right to self-defense and justified the attacks on its citizens.
Asked what difference Israel's borders made, since Hamas was unwilling
to recognize its right to exist, Sand responded: "Hamas is a
movement that is not understandable and does not act according to the
rules of diplomacy." The movement, according to Sand, offered Israel
peace in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, but Israel had rejected the
offer because it wanted to continue murdering Hamas members. Instead,
Sand stated, Israel should strengthen the moderates of Hamas: "I do
not recognize the position of Hamas and the religious ideology of the
movement, but as an Israeli and a historian, I cannot forget that those
who are shooting rockets now are the descendants of those who migrated
from Jaffa and Ashkelon in 1948."[40]
When asked about Hamas's continuing rocket fire despite the fact that
Israel had left the Gaza Strip, Sand replied that Hamas had the right to
continue firing rockets into Israel until the West Bank was completely
freed from Israeli "occupation":
Imagine that Germany today only
occupies northern France and not southern France as was the case in 1940.
Would Germany deny France the right to self-definition regarding the land
that was occupied? Sharon's evacuation of the Gaza Strip was unilateral
because he did not want peace with Arafat. Sharon did not recognize the
West Bank as being occupied. The Palestinians are not asking for a nature
reserve in the Gaza Strip, such as the Red Indians. They are asking for
an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[41]
In Sand's view, Hamas has the
right to operate in areas with civilian populations.
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In light of this, Sand was surprised by the next question: Why did
Hamas use the Palestinian civilian population as human shields? His
response was that it was hypocritical for Israel to make a claim of this
sort and asked if his questioner had forgotten Mao Tse-Tung's dictum that
every resistance movement needed to act among its population just like a
fish in water. In Sand's view, Hamas had the full right to operate in
areas with civilian populations. In contrast, the Israel Defense Forces
did not have any right to act against Hamas, which Sand defined as a national
liberation movement, similar to the communist movement in China and other
locations.[42]
According to Sand, Israel was partially defeated by the Palestine
Liberation Organization during the first intifada and, therefore,
recognized the PLO and took the opportunity to work together for peace.
Israel should also act this way with Hamas by recognizing the
organization and offering it the opportunity to negotiate. But Israel,
according to Sand, only understood the language of force, and he hoped
that President Obama would pressure it to make peace just as President
Carter did at Camp David in 1978 after Egypt had achieved a partial
victory in the 1973 war.
This interview by Sand in which he justified Hamas and strongly
criticized the actions of Israel in the Gaza Strip received great
popularity in the Arab media. For example, al-Awan newspaper
repeated the question of who won the war in the Gaza Strip. The author
stated that although Hamas ultimately won, Israel demonstrated during
three weeks of destruction and horror that it was above international
law. The author expanded on Sand's approach to Hamas and his claim that
the timing of the war for Israel was perfect because of the parliamentary
elections. Minister of Defense Ehud Barak acted with an eye to the
elections, and 1,300 Palestinians were killed while another 5,000 were
wounded. Barak removed the tanks from the Gaza Strip just before the
elections and on the precise day Obama entered the White House.[43]
Conclusion
Sand claims that his beliefs are highly unusual in Israeli society but
trusts his tenure at Tel Aviv University makes it virtually impossible to
fire him. In an interview during Operation Cast Lead, which he called a
slaughter,[44]
he noted that although he felt alone, he was not afraid. In his account,
there was some popular support for his position as shown by a January 3,
2009 demonstration in Tel Aviv against the Gaza fighting.[45]
In 2012, he published another book, The Invention of the Land of
Israel,[46]
whose Arabic version was also lauded by Hamas.[47] By the time Israel was forced
to fight another war against Hamas in Gaza in the summer of 2014, Sand
had taken his anti-Jewish libel a step further by writing yet another
book, Why I Stopped Being a Jew. Not surprisingly, he has become a
very popular interviewee on Hamas's website and on other pro–Palestinians
sites.[48]
His many quotes in the Arab media glorify and support Palestinian
rights but mostly ignore the rights of Israel and the Jewish people. Sand
has not invented any
new concepts; his book supports the Nazi theory that there is no Jewish
people, and that the modern Jewish nation is comprised of many
ethnicities. When he received the prestigious French award for his book,
Sand noted that "the book is not Zionist but is also not
anti-Zionist."[49]
Sand is correct—the book is simply anti-Jewish.
Shaul Bartal is a lecturer on Palestinian affairs at Bar Ilan
University and author of The Palestinian from the Catastrophe to the
Feda'yyin, 1949-1956 (Jerusalem, Carmel, 2009).
[1] Shlomo
Sand, Matai ve-Eich Humtsa Ha'am Hayehudi (Tel Aviv: Resling,
2008).
[2] Hadassa
Ben-Itto, Hasheker Mesarev Lamut: 100 Shnot "Haprotokolim shel
Ziknei Zion" (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1998), pp. 332-9.
[3] Sand, Matai
ve-Eich, pp. 266-97; Dan Lahman, "Shlomo Sand /Matai
ve-Eich Humtsa Ha'am Hayehudi," e-mago, Apr. 30, 2008.
[4] Israel
Bartal, "Hamtza'at ha-Hamtza'ah," Haaretz (Tel Aviv),
May 28, 2008.
[5] Dov Ben
Meir, Aliyyato ve-Geulato shel Ha'am Hyehudi, Hisardut, Yetsira,
Kommemiyut (Tel Aviv: Mishkal, 2010); Arthur Hertzberg and Aron
Hirt-Manheimer, Jews, the Essence and the Character of a People
(San Francisco: HarperOne, 1998).
[6] See, for
example, Muhammad Musbah Hamdan, al-Isti'mar wa-l-Sahyonia al-Alamiya
(Sidon: Dar al-Maktaba al-Asriya, 1967), pp. 94-112.
[7] Cairo:
al-Mualef, 2002-03.
[8] Hassan
Bash, at-Tarbiya as-Sahyonia, Min Ansariyat at-Torah-ila Damu'ya
al-Ihtilal (No location, 2002-03), pp. 18-19.
[9] Ibid., p.
24.
[10] Leon T.
Hadar, "Book Review: The Invention of the Jewish People,"
Middle East Policy, Aug. 26, 2010.
[11] Hebrew Amida
prayer.
[12] Sand, Matai
ve-Eich, pp. 182-3.
[13] Dore
Gold, The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future
of the Holy City (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 2007), pp.
123, 126-30.
[14] Sayyid
Qutb, Ma'arakatuna ma'a al-Yahud (Cairo: Dar ash-Shuruk, 1993;
first published 1954), pp. 20-38.
[15] France 2
TV (Paris), Mar. 5, 2009.
[16] Eric
Rouleau, "The 'Ethnic Cleansing' of Palestine. Judaism Is Universal,"
Le Monde Diplomatique (Paris), May 2008.
[17] Anita
Shapira, "Review Essay, The Jewish-People Deniers," The
Journal of Israeli History, Mar. 2009, pp. 63–72.
[18] Maher
Sharif, "Shlomo
Sand wa-Ikhtiraa ash-Shaab al-Yahudi," Palestinian People's
Party website, June 6, 2009.
[19] Sand, Matai
ve-Eich, pp. 16-19.
[20] Sharif,
"Shlomo Sand."
[21] Assam
Kurd, "al-Muarikh
al-Israili Shlomo Sand: 'ash-Shaab al-Yahudi', Shi Khayali Tum
Ikhtiraa Bimaful Raj'ai wa-Astura' Kamat Aliha Dawlat Israil," al-Quds
(Jerusalem), Dec. 4, 2009.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Shlomo
Sand, "Eich
Mishtaichim le-Am," Haaretz, Sept. 26, 2010
[26] Azat
Hussein, "La Yuyad Shi Asama ash-Shaab al-Yahudi," ash-Shuruk
(Cairo), updated Feb. 19, 2011; Hadi Hussein, "Shlomo
Sand: La Yuyad Shi Asama ash-Shaab al-Yahudi," Liwaja Allah
wa-l-Misr, Mar. 23, 2010.
[27] Hussein,
"La Yuyad Shi Asama ash-Shaab al-Yahudi; Hussein, "Shlomo
Sand."
[28] "Sader An al-Markaz
al-Filastini li-l-Dirasat al-Israiliya: Kitab al-Ikhtiraa ash-Shaab
al-Yahudi li-Shlomo Sand," al-Moukaf (Palestinian Authority),
Sept. 30, 2010.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Hassan
Batal, "Shlomo
Sand, al-Histiriya wa-l- Historiografia," al-Ayyam
(Ramallah), Nov. 2, 2010.
[31] News
1 (Tel Aviv), Jan. 20, 2011
[32] Haaretz,
Nov. 17, 2004.
[33] Batal,
"Shlomo
Sand."
[34] (Beirut:
Markaz al-Abhath, m.t.f, 1981).
[35] Batal,
"Shlomo
Sand."
[36] "Hamas Covenant
1988," Aug. 18, 1988, Yale Law School Avalon Project, art. 11.
[37] Ibid.,"
art. 13.
[38] Hakeem
Fa'al, "Wajaha Nathar li-l-Naqash: Shlomo Sand: Hal Hasart Israil
al-Harb?" Damascus University website, Feb. 10, 2009.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid.
[43] Mukhtar
Khalfawi, "Hal
Hasart Israil al-Harb? Hiwar Maa al-Muarikh al-Iasraili Shlomo
Sand," al-Awan (Gaza), Feb. 8, 2009.
[44] Ibid.
[45] Ibid.
[46] New
York: Verso, 2012.
[47] Barum
Jaraysi, "Mushkilat Israel maa Muourkhi al-Haqiqa," Markaz
al-Filastini li-l-A'lam, Aug. 2, 2014.
[48] See, for
example, Rod Such, "How
historian Shlomo Sand 'stopped being a Jew,'" The Electronic
Intifada, Sept. 15, 2014; Amelia Smith, "Shlomo
Sand on his New Book, How I Stopped Being a Jew," Middle
East Monitor, Oct. 29, 2014.
[49] Maya
Sela, "Itonaei Tsorfat He'eniku le-Shlomo
Sand et Pras 'Hayum' le-Sefer Haiyun shel Hashsana," Akhbar
Ha'air (Tel-Aviv), Mar. 12, 2009.
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